Welcome to the Jetsons: How Robots Will Change Society
Our lives are closely influenced by know-how. With every new piece of know-how that comes out, we’re discovering it simpler and simpler to handle our every day lives. One pattern that I’ve been maintaining my eye on is how robotics is evolving. We are on the precipice of an thrilling time in historical past wherein robots and different superior types of automation will probably be commonplace.
In this text, I’ll look at how robotics is already altering society and speculate about what modifications might are available the subsequent few years and what meaning for enterprise.
Overview and Current Advancements
Robots, by definition, are programmable machines that may perform each easy and complicated collection of actions robotically. This flexibility and tireless devotion to the process at hand makes them a sport changer in sure industries-especially these the place handbook labour is vital.
It is simple to see why individuals are fearful that robots will take over the world and make life tougher. But this worry doesn’t mirror how these machines have made our lives simpler in the previous – and it definitely won’t have an effect on their continued usefulness in the future.
Although it is tough to declare any know-how as the first, one robotic, specifically, is extensively accepted as the very first trendy industrial robotic: Unimate.
It was created to carry sizzling items of metallic from die-casting machines and transport them to a distinct spot – a process that people had beforehand achieved by hand. Due to the inherent hazard of shifting sizzling metallic objects and the significance of this work, it made sense for an unfeeling machine slightly than a human employee to carry out these operations.
George Devol spent a decade trying to construct and function such a robotic; it was the late Sixties efforts of Joseph Engleberger, however-including his means to acquire funding and entice curiosity amongst trade leaders on this innovation-that received robotics off the floor. For this motive, he’s usually known as “the Father of Robotics.”
Unimate demonstrated the potential of commercial robots. Computer scientists, nevertheless, believed that robotics could possibly be used for excess of simply shifting sizzling objects round a manufacturing unit flooring.
Shakey the Robot, created by SRI International from 1966 to 1970, was a groundbreaking achievement: It was the first robotic able to performing duties independently with out human instruction. Shakey helped develop methods that are actually utilized in synthetic intelligence applications. These embrace visible evaluation (for instance, seeing what’s round you at any given time), route discovering (“How do I get to the place I need to go?”), and object manipulation, to title just a few.
In 1970, researchers at Waseda University in Japan developed the first full-scale anthropomorphic robotic. Although it might appear inferior in contrast to different robots presently on the market, WABOT-1 represented an infinite leap ahead in humanity’s understanding of androids. This machine is seen as a step towards what many individuals contemplate the future: private robots that may carry out all kinds of duties.
Building on this, the scientists who created WABOT-1 needed to develop a robotic able to artistic endeavours. In 1980, WABOT-2 was unveiled-a musical prodigy able to taking part in the keys on an electrical organ, studying sheet music, and speaking with somebody to accompany somebody singing.
This machine has been thought of a necessary step in creating private robots.
Fast ahead, the P2 robotic created by Honda was the first two-legged humanoid. Weighing 210 kilograms (462 kilos) and standing one meter eighty-two centimetres tall (5’9″), the machine was roughly human-sized.
One of the important developments of the P2 system was that it ran on a battery and had a wi-fi radio connection. This allowed customers to make instructions with higher freedom than they’d have with different robots. This robotic machine may carry out a lot of the identical duties a human would have the option to do, reminiscent of strolling at 2 km/h (1.24 mph) and pushing a cart upstairs.
Since the arrival of the new millennium, advances in robotics have spanned many fields and industries. A Canadian robotic arm was launched in 2001 and hooked up to the International Space Station. The Canadarm 2, as it’s known as, performs an important function in sustaining the station-one that no different machine has ever been in a position to do earlier than.
In addition, the unmanned aerial automobile Global Hawk made a 22-hour nonstop flight in 2001, from California throughout the Pacific Ocean and Eurasia to land in Edinburgh, Scotland-setting an endurance file for a robotic plane.
Later in 2017, Sophia, a robotic created by Hanson Robotics and granted Saudi Arabian citizenship, is now the first to be acknowledged with gender id and nationality. The information has raised many moral issues about how such developments in synthetic intelligence would possibly at some point influence human rights points – reminiscent of whether or not homicide legal guidelines would apply if Sophia had been turned off. In my private expertise being involved with Sophia in 2017, I may notice that its growth is a foretaste of what the future will appear to be after we are surrounded by robots, though it positively nonetheless requires many technological advances to attain this level.
The Impact of the Pandemic
More not too long ago, when the coronavirus disaster took maintain in early 2020, many roboticists noticed a possibility: robots could possibly be programmed to work with minimal supervision and proceed working even when their human coworkers fell in poor health.
In a 2020 report, Robotics & COVID-19: How Robotic Technologies are Critical in Getting America Up and Running in The Age of the COVID-19 Pandemic, created by The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), specialists argued that the disaster must be used to supercharge medical robotic growth: Robots by no means get sick and might do uninteresting, harmful work that places human employees in danger. Robots may administer drugs and take sufferers’ vitals, liberating up medical doctors and nurses to do what they do finest: work together with sufferers on a human stage.
The British firm, Engineered Arts, unveiled Ameca at the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2022, making headlines worldwide. Ameca is a humanoid robotic that has movable arms and a hyper-realistic face, making it “the good humanoid robotic platform with which to work together in human-like methods”, in accordance to its creators. In addition, Ameca’s creators say they created a user-friendly platform for testing synthetic intelligence and machine studying, making it ultimate for creating human/laptop interplay in any digital realm.
Replacing people with robots may not all the time be the finest choice-some jobs require a private contact. Although there may be widespread recognition that we’ve created a brand new species of clever machines, how we are going to reply when confronted with the penalties of what we’ve achieved stays to be seen.
Robots Will Create Jobs, Not Destroy Them
The World Economic Forum projected in 2020 that by 2025, know-how would create at the very least 96 million jobs greater than it destroys-a signal that automation will possible be a internet optimistic for society in the future.
The concern over machines changing people in the office has been a subject of dialogue since the Industrial Revolution and continues to be in order automation turns into more and more widespread. While there was a lot hype about how automation-particularly robots, which don’t want people to function them – would have an effect on employment and wages, much less consideration has been paid to evidence-based analysis on the topic.
According to Acemoglu and Restrepo, employees usually expertise hostile results, reminiscent of dropping their jobs or being pressured to take lower-paying positions in different industries, when automation applied sciences substitute them.
Acemoglu and Restrepo argue that robots are possible to take jobs from employees in routine handbook occupations-such as machinists, assemblers, materials handlers, or welders.
According to the identical research, each women and men are affected by adopting robots, although males are extra possible to be displaced than ladies. For males, impacts had been seen most in manufacturing jobs-where automation has been readily adopted. For non-manufacturing jobs, it’s a totally different story: for each genders in these fields impacted by technological advances (reminiscent of radiology or coverage writing), the results on employment have proved combined.
The researchers discovered that the adoption of commercial robots doesn’t appear to enhance the employment scenario of employees with superior levels, which may point out that, in contrast to different types of know-how, robotics does little to immediately increase the work carried out by high-skill labourers. Overall, the influence of robots is combined. While they substitute many roles previously carried out by comparatively low-paid employees, additionally they make corporations extra environment friendly and productive than ever earlier than.
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, Acemoglu famous that financial crises have a tendency to exacerbate each optimistic and detrimental implications led to by know-how. Without the use of superior digital applied sciences like Zoom or different software program, it will be inconceivable for folks to train and teleconference in varied places round the world. Factories wouldn’t have the option to maintain running-as many haven’t totally recovered from these circumstances however are slowly getting again up on their feet-if employees couldn’t work remotely utilizing these identical varieties of advances.
Mark Lewandowski, P&G’s director of robotics innovation, stated that a few of these occasions might speed up as a result of there are potential enterprise interruptions that you simply want to be ready for, and COVID-19 simply highlighted these points.
More than ever, corporations are re-examining their manufacturing processes and searching for methods to maintain prices down at the same time as labour shortages or commerce disputes drive up the worth of key inputs. This has inspired the acquisition of robots to automate workflows on an ongoing foundation. According to predictions made in 2020 by the World Economic Forum, automation and new divisions of labour between people and machines will disrupt 85 million jobs globally in medium-to-large companies throughout 15 industries by 2025.
How Robots Can Deliver Real World Benefits Now
Today, robots are mostly related to a wide range of conditions involving navy or business plane and autos. But the time has come after we should increase our idea of robots past these of a mechanical nature. Here is how robots are poised to be that additional assist all of us want from time to time.
Teams free of the work of implementing enterprise processes will probably be in a position to give attention to higher-level actions
I’ve written in the previous that robots can free people from performing primary, low-level tasks-not by changing us at work however by doing these mundane jobs, so we do not have to.
A research titled The Augmented Human Enterprise, carried out by the University of London and sponsored by robotic automation firm Automation Anywhere, discovered that organizations augmented with automation applied sciences are 33% extra possible to be “human-friendly” workplaces.
AI can carry out routine work reminiscent of updating worker payroll lists and transferring knowledge from recordsdata.
Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a know-how that automates dependable duties, reminiscent of these carried out by bookkeepers and customer support representatives. Employees who not have to carry out easy, repetitive duties can now give attention to more difficult and artistic work that can profit the firm.
Robots can carry out duties that people are not looking for to tackle
Labour shortages in agriculture are frequent worldwide, and farmers have bother hiring sufficient folks to plant or reap their crops.
In response to this demand, some farms are utilizing robots to remove the want for human workers-that is, they’re utilizing them to carry out easy however tedious duties like selecting berries, packaging salads, and weeding fields.
In the United States, there may be 52% of reported labour shortages on farms, and produce is commonly wasted due to underuse or lack of expertise about preservation strategies; new farming applied sciences are obligatory for guaranteeing that crops should not misplaced, and robots could possibly be the reply.
They make items or companies that had been as soon as out of attain extra accessible
There is not any debate that robots are extra environment friendly at manufacturing items than people. Robots can work with higher accuracy, which reduces wasted supplies and labour-and they’ll maintain going when human employees want relaxation.
Lower manufacturing prices have made items cheaper, making them extra accessible to a bigger variety of folks – no matter their earnings stage or employment standing. The value of a latte may lower, for instance, if espresso retailers rely much less on labour and extra on automated machines to make the espresso. Check out this unimaginable robotic espresso bar, CafeX, situated in San Francisco and Dubai, with nice buyer critiques.
For one other instance of the worth of AI, a translation system permits folks to journey anyplace and work together with different cultures as they please. However, slightly than being confined by typical vacationer routes or language limitations.
This is the case of the Greek National Technology and Research Foundation when created Persephone, a polyglot vacationer information robotic that may converse 33 languages with guests of the Alistrati Cave.
They will enhance work-life stability
As talked about in the first assertion: folks could have extra leisure time out there to them as soon as robots can carry out at the very least a few of their every day job features. There can also be a query about whether or not enough measures might be applied to assist employees who lose their jobs due to automation and whether or not employers will proceed to acknowledge human staff’ worth.
Rather than seeing robots as a menace to employees, imagining the advantages they are going to carry is extra fruitful. The influence of this new know-how will probably be extremely transformative as it’s going to give folks entry to items and companies which have solely been out there to the rich, thereby growing their high quality of life and serving to them discover work they get pleasure from extra.
What Industries Will Be Most Impacted By Robotics Advancements?
Robotic developments will profoundly influence many industries. These embrace healthcare, training, manufacturing, and different industries that require a variety of handbook labour. We are witnessing how robots created with the newest developments in AI have been in a position to automate advanced human jobs in these industries and can proceed to accomplish that in the subsequent few years.
In some circumstances, they’re serving to to overcome bodily limitations by scientific growth in the medical discipline or helping people with harmful duties (or just doing them for us). The developments in robotics know-how will most certainly influence the following industries.
Healthcare
Robotic applied sciences are being developed for a lot of areas of affected person care. In the hospital, they can be utilized to disinfect rooms and working suites, lowering the danger that infectious ailments will unfold amongst sufferers and medical personnel; in laboratories, they work to course of samples-taking them from wherever they had been collected and shifting them by means of totally different levels of testing.
An awesome instance is the Xenex-Germ Zapping Solutions created to remove pathogens missed throughout handbook cleansing and help an infection management applications’ efforts to cut back environmental contamination. Its major clients are prime hospitals in the U.S.
It is especially excellent news for anybody who has ever had blood drawn by somebody whose stick-to-itiveness was lower than legendary-the robotic lab assistant can discover the vein and draw blood with minimal discomfort.
In some amenities, robots ship linens and meals to sufferers’ rooms. In others, they put together drugs in the lab on their very own and carry them-as properly as meals trays with patient-ready plates of food-from flooring to flooring by means of computerized doorways with out human intervention. In addition to robotic walkers, some mechanical assistants assist paraplegics transfer – and might administer bodily remedy.
Such is the case of ReWalk. The ReWalk exoskeleton is a wearable robotic system that gives powered hip and knee movement to allow people with spinal wire harm or illness (SCI/d) to stand upright, stroll, and switch round corners-in essence, it permits them to regain their mobility. ReWalk is the world’s first FDA-approved exoskeleton.
Manufacturing and Logistics
As a results of growing demand for effectivity and cost-savings, logistics robots are an more and more frequent sight in as we speak’s warehouses. To meet the ever-increasing calls for for environment friendly and agile operations, corporations have invested in automating actions in addition to totally different areas inside their amenities with automated storage and retrieval techniques (AS/RS).
As a part of their technique for improved competitiveness, corporations are more and more turning to logistics robots. In a traditional warehouse, people usually do order selecting, making it costlier to function round the clock. Logistics robots make sure that items can stream shortly by means of an industrial plant or distribution centre – permitting for round-the-clock operations and most safety of individuals, merchandise, and different property concerned in the transaction.
Depending on the job, robots might carry out certainly one of many duties.
- Goods receipts and shipments might be carried out by logistics robots, like computerized truck loading and unloading techniques, which makes it attainable to insert/take away pallets from vans autonomously with minimal operator intervention. Automated conveyor techniques can be utilized to pace up items receipt and dispatch, two key warehouse processes with the highest variety of every day actions.
- Storage robots are a kind of commercial robotic designed to transfer merchandise from one location or bin to one other. Stackers, for instance, have been constructed to retailer packing containers and pallets on racks at distribution centres by shifting them from station to station till they’re shipped out once more.
Stacker cranes are available three fundamental varieties: single-mast, twin-mast, and trilateral. These logistics robots journey horizontally alongside storage aisles to carry pallets out of or decrease them onto the racks as needed-all with none human intervention required. Businesses with excessive volumes of products coming into and leaving the facility also can make the most of an automatic storage resolution known as a pallet shuttle. Electric shuttles glide by means of channels to expedite loading and unloading processes with this method.
- Order selecting is one-way logistics robots can be utilized so as preparation. A single storage resolution might embrace each a stacker crane for packing containers and a conveyor for packing containers. In this configuration, the operators stay at their choose stations getting ready orders in accordance to the goods-to-person technique: an order is stuffed when it reaches its destination-the buyer’s field or hand.
Industrial robotic arms can carry out choose and place-removing merchandise from one location, organizing them in one other – to streamline the selecting course of.
- Warehouse robots. Box and pallet conveyor techniques are certainly one of the handiest options for facilitating inner items actions in a warehouse as a result of they make it attainable to construct diverse configurations connecting varied zones inside the facility.
Warehouses might use electrified monorails to hyperlink totally different areas. An electrical motor drives these computerized trolleys, they usually transfer alongside rails suspended from the ceiling or fastened at flooring stage.
Finally, corporations flip to computerized guided autos (AGVs) or autonomous cellular robots (AMRs) to transport items between departments.
- Drones have taken over the logistics trade. Their know-how allows them to transport and ship buyer orders by air – a way of supply that has not been used earlier than, however now there are various corporations profiting from drone applied sciences like Amazon, which is specializing in delivering their merchandise through drones immediately dwelling deliveries with no human involvement in any respect.
The use of drones would produce a number of advantages, together with decrease prices, quicker supply instances (in contrast to standard transport strategies), much less congestion on the nation’s highways – and, subsequently, a big discount in air pollution.
Delivery by drone has nice potential in densely populated areas. However, it is also helpful for delivering medicines or provides to folks dwelling in rural communities and remoted villages.
To sustain with the speedy growth of high-tech companies in Silicon Valley, RK Logistics not too long ago expanded its website in Livermore by 300,000 sq. toes. The facility now handles significantly extra quantity than earlier than. But RK Logistics‘ purchasers had been demanding extra throughput, and the firm’s facility was nearing its capability limits.
To enhance the productiveness of its employees and enhance the throughput of its amenities, RK Logistics evaluated the use of robotics. The firm determined to use Fetch Robotics’ VirtualConveyor resolution.
The VirtualConveyor resolution integrates Freight collection robots, charging stations, and the Fetchcore fleet administration system. By combining these parts right into a single cohesive complete – slightly than working them independently-the complete course of has grow to be extra environment friendly and is healthier in a position to deal with fluctuations in demand, representing a profitable case research inside the logistics trade.
Foodservice and shopper items
While COVID might have accelerated the push for contactless meals prep and repair, it’s half of a bigger pattern that has been in place for a while. Food service corporations that mix meals robots and full-service automation platforms will probably be in a position to decrease pointless contact between employees and the meals, guaranteeing each its security for customers (and the well being of staff).
Robot-assisted options assist meals managers make sure that a broad vary of security protocols are met, guaranteeing that prime requirements for high quality and buyer satisfaction are maintained.
Robotic techniques can robotically carry out features reminiscent of cleansing, timing, and monitoring vital features of the meals storage/preparation course of and remove cross-contamination dangers whereas optimizing meals high quality and shelf-life. Robots might be deployed to higher monitor meals security and logistics round the clock, a feat that might in any other case show tough given staffing limitations at most eating places.
During the pandemic, numerous entry-level meals service employees moved on to different positions. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, over the subsequent decade, about 45,000 jobs for meals service managers are projected every year. Many of those openings will outcome from employees transferring to totally different occupations or exiting the labour power (reminiscent of retiring).
Unstaffed positions are slowing financial restoration for meals companies managers who depend on these staff to maintain their institutions flourishing throughout laborious instances.
Robots will help restaurant homeowners add consistency to their meals service and cut back the complications of discovering, hiring, coaching, and retaining human employees.
Food automation platforms are the way forward for quick meals, utilizing robots to ship on the promise of customized, wholesome, contemporary, and scrumptious meals whereas lowering overhead costs-all with a push of a button.
Food automation options digitize the ordering course of, permitting clients to use their smartphones or tablets at an eatery to simply select objects, make customizations, and schedule supply instances. The robotic kiosks ought to have the option to put together the buyer’s order and retailer it safely till they arrive at the kiosk to choose it up.
An instance of robots utilized in the meals service trade consists of Picnic. This robotic’s pizza-making course of might be automated utilizing this modular, customizable system. First, unfold the sauce on a sheet of dough; then prime it with cheese and pepperoni. Add your three favorite elements, bake-and you are achieved!
Picnic can produce a whole bunch of pizzas per hour, which permits the remainder of the employees time to give attention to different meals objects.
Another wonderful instance of meals automation is Flippy. This robotic is a hamburger-cooking machine that replaces human labour in restaurant kitchens. Last 12 months, Miso Robotics, the firm that created this robotic, introduced Flippy 2, a brand new model of its hamburger-cooking robotic arm. The improve is designed to additional automate easy cooking duties for quick meals institutions.
Finally, Cecilia.ai is a brilliant, interactive bartender that may be positioned virtually anywhere-from dwelling to busy bars and eating places. It serves combined drinks in lower than 30 seconds and offers clients steering about menu choices utilizing AI/speech recognition know-how. It might be simply put in in resorts, casinos, and cruise ships as the major or backup bartender.
Automotive
Automotive meeting traces are topic to a wide range of issues, together with employee accidents, sluggish manufacturing instances, and faulty merchandise. Using robots will help resolve these issues.
Ford makes use of UR10 cobots in Romania to grease camshafts, fill engines with oil and carry out high quality inspections. Ford’s Romanian manufacturing unit has sped up its course of, freed staff from repetitive duties, and improved product high quality by deploying these cobots.
Robots might be programmed to carry out virtually any bodily process concerned in automobile development. There are many ways in which robots can help in making choices. For instance, robots might carry out high quality inspections on the closing product-pass/fail model – to guarantee it meets a sure customary of high quality earlier than being shipped off on the market.
The automotive trade depends on a wide range of employees to full important duties: meeting, portray, welding (together with robots), materials elimination, and sharpening.
Between 2017 and 2019, Tesla was close to chapter. The firm had invested billions of {dollars} in a brand new manufacturing unit crammed with robots-but the machines could not meet manufacturing quotas and sometimes did not work appropriately. Today, Tesla is certainly one of the world’s most dear corporations in the automotive trade. Its automated manufacturing course of has allowed it to leap forward of opponents.
Although people are concerned in manufacturing, most processes require little or no human intervention. Tesla makes use of over 1,000 robots. Some robots on the manufacturing flooring are large enough to carry a whole automobile, whereas others are sufficiently small solely to choose up smaller objects. Some have advanced programming, and a few depend on easy directions or proximity sensors to information their actions.
The large-scale use of automated techniques inside Tesla’s factories helps cut back prices and enhance the pace with which items are moved round. As you possibly can see, Tesla’s purpose is to depend on automation in its manufacturing course of as a lot as attainable.
To handle manufacturing issues, different vehicle producers rely totally on robots for heavy lifting or extraordinarily quick processes. Tesla’s purpose is to use the most state-of-the-art robotics and different applied sciences it will possibly get its fingers on – in revolutionary methods which might be each environment friendly and value – efficient.
Robots don’t substitute people in the auto trade. In many sectors, like closing touches and high quality management, human employees are wanted to carry out duties that robots can not but accomplish. When robotic precision is coupled with human creativity and flexibility-as it inevitably have to be if advances in automotive know-how are to proceed – each fields will profit from a artistic synergy between man – made equipment and organic lifeforms that nobody earlier than us had ever been in a position to think about or create in a roundabout method.
The Good and Bad of Robotics Developments
The growth of the synthetic intelligence and robotics trade is one important issue that impacts and transforms varied features of on a regular basis life-a transformation fostered by speedy technological change.
Personal service robots, engineered to assist folks with on a regular basis duties, have grow to be extra frequent. For instance, the robotic assistant named Alexa in lots of houses and the nurse-assistive robots utilized by hospitals worldwide.
It is predicted that these service robots will grow to be extra built-in into folks’s on a regular basis lives-transforming sectors reminiscent of agriculture, logistics, and retail specifically. As a results of their elevated presence, companies should adapt their operations to modifications in social constructs.
As robots grow to be extra clever and pervasive in trade and society, they are going to assist resolve a few of humanity’s best challenges. At the identical time, new job alternatives-hundreds of latest professions-will be created by these advances.
However, every coin has two sides, and so do robots. While they’ve many benefits – reminiscent of the means to carry out repetitive duties with precision – they’ll even have main drawbacks, reminiscent of having the ability to substitute people in sure jobs, which would go away these folks unemployed.
Robots have two main downsides. First, they substitute people in the workforce, growing unemployment charges. Second, robots are very costly to produce and use (relying in your perspective). Robots are made after in depth analysis and growth, which requires excessive know-how with in depth investments that most individuals wouldn’t have. In essence, robots might be costly to buy, preserve or hire. Their excessive worth tags increase the value of producing items and merchandise.
Although robots are manufactured and used primarily for manufacturing functions in a company, they usually enhance the prices of manufacturing due to their costly nature. At the identical time, nevertheless, they cut back total prices by changing human labour. While they cut back prices due to decrease ranges of wastage, the preliminary funding continues to be excessive.
Additionally, working robots requires particular experience from the worker to program and work together with them. This can also be certainly one of the disadvantages of robots, as they can not carry out many scientific duties independently and thus require appreciable human interplay.
We are witnessing a revolutionary transformation in how folks, companies and societies work together. In the future, it might end up that we underestimated each the optimistic and detrimental results of this disruption. However, we’d like to begin getting ready for them as quickly as attainable.
Governments and C-Level executives ought to create a working atmosphere that can allow everybody to profit from the shifts led to by innovation. This consists of training and coaching for human employees, assist for analysis activities-and funding in improvements.
Final Thoughts
Technological advances transfer at an ever-increasing tempo, and there’s no signal of slowing down. How we work together with know-how is shifting, in addition to how intrinsically we depend on it. From our iPhones to being greeted by customer support chatbots, our lives are being formed and adjusted by the machines that man was initially meant to management. There continues to be a good distance to go earlier than robots grow to be part of our on a regular basis lives.
As the Jetsons so aptly illustrated in the twentieth century, robots might not be a typical sight in society as we speak. However, the pattern towards automation and know-how will solely proceed to develop extra widespread, reworking our conventional technique of doing work into completely new techniques.
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